writing guide - 31.1 31. WRITING Reports are the most common form of document written by engineering. Report writing is an art that we often overlook, but in many cases can make a dramatic impact on how our work is perceived. Your reports are most likely to find their way to a superiors desk than you are to meet the individual. 31.1 FORGET WHAT YOU WERE TAUGHT BEFORE In my experience, most engineering students have been prepared for persuasive writing, but many of these skills become a negative when writing reports. The items listed below are the most common problems that engineering encounter when writing. Writing is the last thing you do - Students have been required to do rough drafts to clarify their thoughts and determine what they want to say. To put it simply, if you don’t know what you will say you are not ready to write. When you are ready to write it should already be clear. An author should not start to write the report until all Don’t find ’creative ways to say things’ - many student have been taught that they should not repeat themselves and find multiple ways to say things. When this is done in technical documents it leads to confusion. Authors should use precise terms (as many times as needed) and avoid trying to generate creative word choices. For example, we could increase confusion by also describing translation as motion, movement, sliding, displacing, etc. Keep it simple - In an attempt to increase the ’prestige’ of a document many authors will use ’large’ words. This often leads to confusion and should be avoided. In some cases when an author is unsure they will respond by making their writing style more complex but most readers recognize this. For example, “Electronic computer based digital readings can provided a highly accurate data source to improve the quality of the ascertained data.” could be replaced with “Computer based data collection is more accurate.” Clear, concise and to the point - In the past many students have been required to write reports with a minimum number of words. This encourages writers to break ideas into smaller pieces. But, readers appreciate shorter documents that get to the point. For example, “Readings of the pressure, as the probe was ascending up the chimney towards the top, were taken.” is better put “Pressure probe readings were taken as the probe was inserted”. There is no great opening paragraph - Over half of all student authors spent a large amount of time on the opening paragraph to set the tone for the report. In my experience the longer a student tries to write the opening paragraph, the worse it is. In most cases it can be removed entirely from the document without any negative impact. Ironically, the writing of these students often improves once they writing guide - 31.2 get beyond the first paragraph, but they have already lost the interest of the reader. Transitions are not that important - Students are often coached to create clean transitions between sentences and paragraphs. As a result they often add unnecessary sentences and words. Words that are often warning signs are also and then. You don’t need to keep the good stuff to the end - Many authors try to write the report so that there is a ’climax’. It can be very frustrating for a reader who reads 90% of a report before they encounter some discussion of the results. (note: a report is not like a mystery novel.) Saying it more than once is acceptable- Over 3/4 of students feel that it is unacceptable to state facts more than once. In truth you want to state fact as many times as necessary to make a technical point. In the case of very important details, this will be in the abstract, introduction discussion and conclusion. A better procedure for writing engineering reports is detailed below. The method leaves writing to one of the last stages, but it becomes much easier when done this way. 1. Plan and do the work as normal. Regardless of what the report requires this will often include drawings, sketches, graphs/charts of collected data, pictures, etc. 2. Do the analysis (preferably on computer) of the data and results. These should be organized into a logical sequence. 3. Review the results to ensure they make sense and follow a logical flow.If necessary add figures to help clarify. 4. Review the materials to verify that they make sense without the text. 5. Put in point form notes to lay out the document. 6. Write the text for the report. 7. Verify that the report conforms to guidelines. 8. Proofread. 31.2 WHY WRITE REPORTS? Reports are written for a number of reasons, as listed below. In all cases they are designed to communicate technical information. Report readers are often looking for clear details that lead to a clear set of conclusions. By contrast, they are not looking for content that is highly philosophical, or riddled with artistic diversions. - (lets forget about this one) as a student you must do them to get marks - to let other engineers know the results of an experiment - to leave a record of work done so that others may continue on - as a record you may use yourself if you must do work again some time later - they are required for legal reasons (contract or legislation) - they bring closure to the project writing guide - 31.3 31.3 THE TECHNICAL DEPTH OF THE REPORT Knowing the level of reader is very important when writing. Engineers often write reports for other engineers, or technically aware readers. As a result an engineer will often write at their own knowledge level. When necessary, appendices can be added to accommodate readers with variable backgrounds. The depth of detail is another common issue. The author should provide enough detail to allow others to follow and reproduce the results. The two questions below should form a good basis for evaluation. “What happens if I am hit by a car; could somebody pick up my report and continue?” if the answer to this question is no the report requires more detail. “Would I skip or skim this sentence/paragraph/section/report because it is so obvious?”. If the answer is yes section can be condensed, or moved to and appendix. 31.4 TYPES OF REPORTS The list below shows many of the reports written by engineers. In general, reports give necessary background, discuss details and then draw conclusions from them. The credibility of a report is based upon the evidence it contains. These then support the conclusions drawn by the author. Laboratory - Theses ‘Lab Reports’ describe one or more experiments, the results, and the conclusions drawn from them. Consulting - A summary of details, test results, observations, and a set of conclusions. Typically they will also contain a recommendation. Project - A description of work done in a project to inform other engineers who may be asked to take up further work on the project. Research - A summary of current advances in a topic. This should end with some comparison of alternatives. Interim - A report to apprise supervisors and others as to the progress of a project or other major undertaking. Executive - A brief summary of the report, and any implications for decision making at the management levels. Proposals - A technical document describing a project for the purposes of obtaining permission to proceed. 31.5 LABORATORY REPORTS • Purpose: These reports should outline your procedure and results in detail. They writing guide - 31.4 should also contain the analysis and conclusions. The completeness of detail allows you (and others) to review these and verify the correctness of what has been done. These have been historically used for hundreds of years and are accepted as a form of scientific and legal evidence. It is completely unacceptable to make incorrect entries or leave out important steps or data. • Standard Format: 1. Title, Author, Date - these make it clear what the labs contain, who did the work, and when it was done. If the report is done for a course it should also include the course name/number, the lab instructor and the lab section. 2. Purpose - a brief one line statement that allows a quick overview of what the experiment is about. This is best written in the form of a scientific goal using the scientific methods. 3. Theory - a review of applicable theory and calculations necessary. Any design work is done at this stage 4. Equipment - a list of the required equipment will help anybody trying to replicate the procedure. Specific identifying numbers should be listed when possible. If there are problems in the data, or an instrument is found to be out of calibration, we can track the problems to specific sets of data and equipment. 5. Procedure - these are sequential operations that describe what was done during the experiment. The level of detail should be enough that somebody else could replicate the procedure. We want to use this as a scientific protocol. 6. Results (Note: sometimes procedure and results are mixed) - the results are recorded in tables, graphs, etc. as appropriate. It will also be very helpful to note other events that occur (e.g. power loss, high humidity, etc.) 7. Discussion - At this stage the results are reviewed for trends and other observations. At this point we want to consider the scientific method. 8. Conclusions - To conclude we will summarize the significant results, and make general statements either upholding or rejecting our purpose. • Style: These are meant to be written AS the work is done. As a result the work should be past tense • Laboratory reports should have one or more hypotheses that are to be tested. If testing designs these are the specifications. Examples might be, - what is the thermal capacity of a material? - what is the bandwidth of an amplifier? - will the counter increment/decrement between 0 to 9? • NOTE: These reports are much easier to write if you prepare all of the calculations, graphs, etc. before you start to write. If you sit down and decide to do things as you writing guide - 31.5 write it will take twice as long and get you half the marks...... believe me, I have written many in the past and I mark them now. 31.5.0.1 - An Example First Draft of a Report Grand Valley State University Padnos School of Engineering EGR 345 Dynamics Systems Modeling and Control Laboratory Exercise 7 Title: The Cooling of Coffee Author: I. M. Wyred Date: Dec., 23, 1998 Purpose: To derive a theoretical model of the rate at which coffee cools and experimentally verify the model and find coefficients. Theory: When coffee is heated kinetic energy is added, when coffee is cooled kinetic energy is removed. In a typical use, coffee cools as heat is lost through convection and conduction to the air and solids in contact. The factors involved in this convection/conduction can be difficult to measure directly, but we can approximate them with a simple thermal resistance. Consider the temperature difference between the coffee and the ambient temperature. The greater the temperature difference, the higher the rate of heat flow out of the coffee. This relationship can be seen formally in the equation below. We can also assume that the atmosphere is so large that the heat transfer will not change the temperature. writing guide - 31.6 We can also consider that coffee has a certain thermal capacity for the heat energy. As the amount of energy rises, there will be a corresponding temperature increase. This is known as the thermal capacitance, and this value is unique for every material. The basic relationships are given below. I will assume that the energy flow rate into the coffee is negligible. The temperatures can be found by consider that the energy flowing out of the cup, and into the atmosphere is governed by the resistance. And, the temperature in the coffee and air are governed by the two capacitances. We will make two assumptions, that the thermal capacitance of the atmosphere is infinite, and that there is no energy flowing into the coffee. q 1 R = ---(θcoffee – θair) where, q = heat flow rate from coffee to air (J/s) R = thermal resistance between air and coffee θ = temperatures in the coffee and air Δθcoffee 1 Ccoffee ----------------(qin – qout) –1 Ccoffee = =----------------q where, Ccoffee = thermal capacitance Ccoffee = Mcoffeeσcoffee where, Mcoffee = mass of thermal body σcoffee = specific heat of material in mass dθcoffee dt ------------------ –1 Ccoffee = ----------------q writing guide - 31.7 This differential equation can then be solved to find the temperature as a function of time. The time constant of this problem can be taken from the differential equation dθcoffee dt ------------------ –1 Ccoffee = ----------------q dθcoffee dt ∴------------------ –1 Mcoffeeσcoffee --------------------------------- 1 R ---(θcoffee – θair) =   dθcoffee dt ------------------ 1 McoffeeσcoffeeR ------------------------------------- ∴ + θcoffee 1 McoffeeσcoffeeR ------------------------------------- = θair BCeCt 1 McoffeeσcoffeeR -------------------------------------  A BeCt ∴ + (+ ) 1 McoffeeσcoffeeR ------------------------------------- = θair θ A BeCt Guess = + d dt ----θ BCeCt = eCt BC B McoffeeσcoffeeR  + -------------------------------------   A McoffeeσcoffeeR ------------------------------------- –1 McoffeeσcoffeeR -------------------------------------  + θair ∴ + = 0 BC B McoffeeσcoffeeR +------------------------------------- =0 C –1 McoffeeσcoffeeR = ------------------------------------- A McoffeeσcoffeeR ------------------------------------- –1 McoffeeσcoffeeR ------------------------------------- + θair =0 A = θair To find B, the initial temperature of the coffee should be used, θ0 A Be C(0) = + =θair + B B = θ0 – θair θ θair (θ0 – θair)e –t McoffeeσcoffeeR ----------------------------------- = + The final equation is, writing guide - 31.8 above. Equipment: 1 ceramic coffee cup (14 oz.) 2 oz. ground coffee 1 coffee maker - Proctor Silex Model 1234A 1 thermocouple (gvsu #632357) 1 temperature meter (gvsu #234364) 1 thermometer 2 quarts of tap water 1 standard #2 coffee filter 1 clock with second hand 1 small scale (gvsu# 63424) Procedure and Results: 1. The coffee pot was filled with water and this was put into the coffee maker. The coffee filter and grounds were put into the machine, and the machine was turned on. After five minutes approximately the coffee was done, and the pot was full. 2. The mass of the empty coffee cup was measured on the scale and found to be 214g. 3. The air temperature in the room was measured with the thermometer and found to be 24C. The temperature of the coffee in the pot was measured using the thermocouple and temperature meter and found to be 70C. 4. Coffee was poured into the cup and, after allowing 1 minute for the temperature to equalize, the temperature was measured again. The temperature was 65C. Readings of the coffee temperature were taken every 10 minutes for the next 60 minutes. These values were recorded in Table 1 below. During this period the cup was left on a table top and allowed to cool in the ambient air temperature. During this period the mass of the full coffee cup was measured and found to be 478g. τ = McoffeeσcoffeeR writing guide - 31.9 Discussion: The difference between the temperature of the coffee in the pot and in the cup was 5C. This indicates that some of the heat energy in the coffee was lost to heating the cup. This change is significant, but I will assume that the heating of the cup was complete within the first minute, and this will have no effect on the data collected afterwards. The readings for temperature over time are graphed in Figure 1 below. These show the first-order response as expected, and from these we can graphically estimate the time constant at approximately 32 minutes. time (min) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 temperature (deg C) 65 53 43 35 30 28 26 Table 1: Coffee temperatures at 10 minute intervals 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 temp (deg C) t (min) Figure 1 - A graph of coffee temperature measured at 10 minute intervals τ ≈ 32min 24 writing guide - 31.10 We can compare the theoretical and experimental models by using plotting both on the same graph. The graph clearly shows that there is good agreement between the two curves, except for the point at 30 minutes, where there is a difference of 3.5 degrees C. This gives an overall error of 8.5% between these two curves, compared to the total range of the data. Finally, the results can be used to calculate a thermal resistance. If we know the mass of the coffee and assume that the coffee has the same specific heat as water, and have the time constant, the thermal resistance is found to be 1731sC/J. 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 temp (deg C) t (min) Figure 2 - Comparison of experimental and modelled curves max. difference of 3.5 deg. C experimental data mathematical model error 3.5 65 – 24 =-----------------100=8.5% τ = McoffeeσcoffeeR Mcoffee=478g – 214g=0.264Kg σcoffee 4.2 C KgJ = ---------- R τ Mcoffeeσcoffee --------------------------------- 1731 sC J = = ------ τ=32min=1920s writing guide - 31.11 Conclusion: In general the models agreed well, except for a single data point. This error was relatively small, only being 8.5% of the entire data range. This error was most likely caused by a single measurement error. The error value is greater than the theoretical value, which suggests that the temperature might have been read at a "hot spot". In the procedure the temperature measuring location was not fixed, which probably resulted in a variation in measurement location. 31.5.0.2 - An Example Final Draft of a Report • A final draft of the report is available on the course website in Mathcad format, and it will be distributed in the lab. 31.6 RESEARCH • Purpose: After looking at a technical field we use these reports to condense the important details and differences. After reading a research report another reader should be able to discuss advanced topics in general terms. • Strategy A: 1. Clearly define the objectives for the report 2. Outline what you know on a word processor in point form and find the ‘holes’ 3. Do research to find the missing information 4. Incorporate the new and old information (still in point form) 5. Rearrange the points into a logical structure 6. Convert point form into full text 7. Proof read and edit 31.7 DRAFT REPORTS - draft reports will be edited for contect. As a result they must be double spaced to make room for editing comments. writing guide - 31.12 31.8 PROJECT REPORT XXXXX UPDATE USING PROJECT DESCRIPTION - do exhibits first, then write Basic elements are, Title page - title of project - Department/Company (i.e., unviersity) name - course/name - author list - date of submission Executive Summary/Overview - the purpose is to let people know if they want ro read the report - write it last after all the details are done - briefly describe the purpose of the work - what were the results, be detailed - given numbers - keep it short Nomenclature - list all variables used in the report - put in alphaetical order, with upper case first - list greek and other variables separately Table of contents - list all major sections, and minor sections to a reasonable level - list page numbers - right justify the numbers Introduction - if you must include this section, it should be brief - the introduction is expected to outline details to be discussed in the report. Body............ Title page writing guide - 31.13 • Purpose: These reports allow the developer or team to document all of the design decisions made during the course of the project. This report should also mention avenues not taken. Quite often the projects that we start will be handed off to others after a period of time. In many cases they will not have the opportunity to talk to us, or we may not have the time. These reports serve as a well known, central document that gathers all relevant information. • Strategy A: 1. Define the goals for the project clearly in point form 2. Examine available options and also add these in point form 3. Start to examine engineering aspects of the options 4. Make engineering decisions, and add point form to the document 5. As work continues on the project add notes and figures 6. When the project is complete, convert the point form to full text. 7. Proof read and edit 31.9 OTHER REPORT TYPES 31.9.1 Executive Purpose: These reports condense long topics into a very brief document, typically less than one page in length. Basically these save a manager from having to read a complete report to find the details that interest him/her. 31.9.2 Consulting Purpose: These reports are typically commissioned by an independent third party to review a difficult problem. The consultant will review the details of the problem, do tests as required, and summarize the results. The report typically ends with conclusions, suggestions or recommendations. 31.9.3 Memo(randum) Purpose: An internal business letter designed to convey a business policy or inforwriting guide - 31.14 mation. - begin with Date, From, To, Subject:, cc: 31.9.4 Interim Purpose: This report is normally a formal report to track the progress of a project. When a project is initially planned, it will be given a timeline to follow. The interim report will indicate progress relative to the initial timeline, as well as major achievements and problems. 31.9.5 Poster Purpose: A presentation format that conveys the key concept visually so that a spectator would have a concept of the project in a glance, and be able to review the key concepts in under one minute. - use a minmimum of 16pt, or higher font. - abundant usage of figures - put on foan core backing board, or worst, a purchased cardboard backing board. - The format uses bullets (still full sentences) to abreviate the presentation. - the poster should be self-explanatory - be neat - use color in a tasteful way. Typical sections include; purpose/motivation - a brief summary of the purpose of the work. A summary of the major work detials and outcomes. approach - the work that was done conclusions - the results of the work that was assigned acknowledgements - indicate others who played a significant role in the results. 31.9.6 Progress Report Purpose: To provide details of project progress to a supervisor or customer. writing guide - 31.15 31.9.7 Oral Purpose: Work may be presented to an audience in a formal presentation. - This can be a very effective method of comminucation when done well, but it can also be very cruel because an audience may be forced to sit through an uncomfortable experience. - use a minmimum of 16pt, or higher font. - abundant usage of figures - The format uses bullets (still full sentences) to abreviate the presentation. - the presentation should be self-explanatory - use color, visuals and sounds in a tasteful way. - present concepts, by introducing, presenting then reviewing. 31.9.8 Patent Purpose: A document to describe a design for legal purposes. - a patent documents that an individual/company owns the idea. - it gives them the right to sue those who use the idea and ’infringe’ - the patent is submitted to the patent office and reviewed. If the reviewers are satisfied, then the patent is granted, and a patent number is assigned. - a patent only gives the holder the right to sue. - Normally a patent lists the inventor (normally an engineer), but is assigned to the employer. If the inventor is an employee, they assign the rights to the employer in exchange for $1. - Patents are publically available after they are granted to encourage innovation. - Patents have a life of 20 years from the date of application. - A patent is only available for ideas that can be patented. - the patent is structured into the follwing sections; Abstract - a brief description of the patent References - A list of other patents, or other publications that are related. These are expected as most patents are built upon previous concepts. Claims - An itemized list of features that make the design unique from previous ideas. Normally the are at least a dozen claims. These are the items that are the legal basis for the patent. Description - A techibcally detailed description of the patentable work.Tihis normally includes sections such as Summary of the Invention, Description of the Drawings, Detailed Description of the Invention. It is common for the description to include drawings and equations. writing guide - 31.16 31.10 LAB BOOKS (This is adapted from a document developed by Dr. P. Anyalebechi) Each student is required to maintain a well-kept and up-to-date laboratory notebook. This notebook should be used to record all of the details of the various experiments and tests that are performed no matter how trivial they may seem at the time. The entries should include the following: (i) Date the test was performed (ii) Objective of the test or experiment (iii) A brief description of the experimental or test apparatus or machine and the procedure used (iv) Results obtained - including visual observations and computer data file names (if the results were obtained with a data acquisition system) (v) Preliminary thoughts on the significance of the results At the end of each lab period, the notebook should be witnessed and signed by either the instructor or a laboratory assistant. The notebook should be submitted to your instructor for grading within 24 hour of the end of the lab. For team studies, every member of the team is expected to keep an independent record (in his/her own laboratory notebook) of the experimental procedure, results, and preliminary interpretation of the results. This will facilitate team discussions. Well-kept laboratory notebooks are very important. They facilitate the statistical analysis and interpretation of the data and the eventual writing of a final technical report. They provide a legal record of events and often make the difference between winning or losing legal cases on patents and on a company's right to use a certain technology in their manufacturing facilities. Losing one of these cases could bankrupt a company or cost it millions of dollars in royalty! 31.11 REPORT ELEMENTS • In reports we must back up our opinions with data, equations, drawings, etc. As a result we use a number of common items, writing guide - 31.17 - figures - tables - equations - • When these elements are included, there MUST be a mention of them in the written text. • These days it is common to cut and paste figures in software. Make sure - the resolution is appropriate - the colors print properly in the final form or print well as black and white - the smallest features are visible - scanned drawings are clean and cropped to size - scanned photographs are clear and cropped to size - digital photographs should be properly lit, and cropped to size - screen captures are clipped to include only relevant data 31.11.1 Figures • Figures include drawings, schematics, graphs, charts, etc. • They should be labelled underneath sequentially and given a brief title to distinguish it from other graphs. For example “Figure 1 - Voltage and currents for 50 ohm resistor” • In the body of the report the reference may be shortened to ‘Fig. 1’ • The figures do not need to immediately follow the reference, but they should be kept in sequence. We will often move figures to make the type setting work out better. • If drawing graphs by computer, - if fitting a line/curve to the points indicate the method used (e.g. linear regression) - try not to use more than 5 curves on the same graph - use legends that can be seen in black and white - clearly label units and scales - label axes with descriptive term. For example “Hardness (RHC)” instead of “RHC” writing guide - 31.18 - scale the curve to make good use of the graph - avoid overly busy graphs - titles should clearly, and disctinct, indicate why the content of the figure is significant. 31.11.2 Graphs • Units on axes • Should have points drawn and connected with straight (or no) lines if experimental. • Smooth lines are drawn for functions or fitted curves. If a curve has been fitted the fitting method should be described. • if using graphing software don’t put a title on the graph. - titles should clearly, and disctinct, indicate why the content of the figure is signif- Figure 2 - Various Techniques for Making a Sphere with AMP writing guide - 31.19 icant. 31.11.3 Tables • Tables are often treated as figures. • They allow dense information presentation, typically numerical in nature. • Legends can be added to tables to help condense size. • table columns should have units as appropriate - titles should clearly, and disctinct, indicate why the content of the figure is significant. 31.11.4 Equations • When presenting equations, use a good equation editor, and watch to make sure subscripts, etc are visible. • Number equations that are referred to in the text. • Box in equations of great significance. • left justify equations Table 1: A Comparison of Toy Vehicle Properties Description Number Color Shape Material car 3 red rectangular die cast truck 6 blue long polyprop. motorcycle 2 green small wood writing guide - 31.20 • express results in engineering notation • use care with subscripts 31.11.5 Experimental Data • When analyzing the results from an experiment there are a few basic methods that may be used, Absolute difference - For example if the theoretical value is 105.8 and the measured value is 104.0 then you would say that "... the measured value was 1.8 below the theoretical value." Percent difference - Avoid using this, but if must remember to assign a sign to the percentage value. For example if the theoretical value is 100 and the measured value is 50 then you would say that "... the measured value was 50% below the theoretical value." OR "... the theoretical value was 200% of the experimental value." Mean and standard deviation - Useful for multiple data readings. Point by point - look at each point, and compare it to another. ΣFx=– T1 sin60°+FR sinθR=0 ΣFy=–T1– T1 cos(60°)+ FRcosθR=0 + + ∴FR T1 sin60° sinθR ---------------------- T1 + T1cos60° cosθR = =----------------------------------- sin60° 1+ cos60° ∴-------------------------- sinθR cosθR =--------------=tanθR ∴tanθR 0.866 1 + 0.5 = ---------------- ∴θR = 30° 98sin60° = FRsin30° ∴FR = 170N (1) (2) sub (1) into (2) writing guide - 31.21 • After data is presented, it should be discussed. In general a few good strategies are, - Discuss the fit between theory and measured. Explain differences in terms of hard facts and with numbers. - Don’t make vague references to human or experimental error. - Try to develop a conclusion about the quality of the experimental data. - Make a recommendation about changes that would improve that data quality. 31.11.6 Result Summary A results summary allows both the author and the reader a chance to review the resuls before a final conclusion. These should include the important results presented elsewhere in the report. It is best to use a graphical format such as a table or list. 31.11.7 References • References help provide direction to the sources of information when the information may be questioned, or the reader may want to get additional detail. • Reference formats vary between publication sources. But, the best rule is be consistent. • One popular method for references is to number them. The numbers are used in the body of the paper (eg, [14]), and the references are listed numerically at the end. • Another method is to list the author name and year (eg, [Yackish, 1997]) and then list the references at the end of the report. • Footnotes are not commonly used in engineering works. • References on the internet should include a working web address, a description of the page (normally the page title), a date viewed and the page author if available. 31.11.8 Acknowledgments • When others have contributed to the work but are not listed as authors we may writing guide - 31.22 choose to recognize them. • Acknowledgments are brief statements that indicate who has contributed to a work. 31.11.9 Abstracts An abstract is a brief summary of the results of the project. It us used by potential readers to determine if they are interested in reading a report. It should repeat a number of key details. An abstract should not omit key findings, as if it were an advertisement for a movie. 31.11.10 Appendices Reports often include appendices to reduce bulk from the body. When putting material in an appendix it should stand alone and be referred to in the body of the report. It is customary to provide a summary of the results in the appendix, unless it is tutorial in nature. Examples of common appendices are given below. sample calculations - these are redundant numerical calculations, or a prolonged derivation of equations. The body of the report has a summary of key assumptions, sample calculations and results. The calculations are often provided so that the reader may verify the calculations. long tables of data - tables of numerical data are often put in appendices. Typically a sample of the table is included in the body for discussion purposes. These are often provided for the reader who wants to use the data beyond the uses in the report. program listings - long listings of computer programs are often put in appendices. They are referenced in the body on the report near the algorithm/calculation/ method they implement. These listings are provided for readers who want to use the program. multiple data graphs - multiple sets of data graphs are often put in appendices and summarized in a report body. The graphs are often provided so that the reader may use the graphs for verification or further analysis. reviews of basic theory - these are often referenced in the body of the report for readers who may not have seen a topic previously. These are uncommon in student reports. writing guide - 31.23 31.11.11 Page Numbering - number all pages sequentially, roman numerals starting from ‘i)’ on the first page arabic numerals starting from ‘1’ on the - or, number pages by section. This is very useful for multi part manuals for example ‘4-7’ would be the 7th page in the 4th section - if pages are blank label them ‘this page left blank’ - number sections sequentially with roman or Arabic numerals 31.11.12 Numbers and Units - use engineering notation (move exponents 3 places) so that units are always micro, milli, kilo, mega, giga, etc. Avoid number formats such as ’0.00000456’ - use significant figures to round the numbers. For example a length of 0.345432in for a dimension measured with a ruler is ridiculous. - units are required always - greek symbols or the unit name spelled out - take care to distinguish between frequency in hertz and radians/sec - put a ’0’ before a point, 0.5 not .5 - 31.11.13 Engineering Drawings The Padnos School of Engineering basic drawing requirements are summarized below. General Requirements - a standard border - a title block with a part name, employer/client/etc, designers name, date of creation, units used, tolerances (unless noted on each dimension). Orthographic views - three views unless axial symmetry allows fewer. - the front view should be the most descriptive - aligned correctly - any hole/arc over 180 degrees must have center lines and marks - blind holes made by drilling must have a drill point shown - all parts must be manufacturable Dimensioning - The location and size of each feature must be clearly defined - critical assembly dimensions must be directly readable and not require writing guide - 31.24 addition. - holes that form patterns must be dimensioned relative to each other and relative to a major feature - smaller dimensions should be closer to the part - chained dimensions must be aligned - hole sizes and dimensions should be on the profile view - arcs/circles more than 180 degrees are sized by diameter, otherwise radius is used. - redundant dimensions should be eliminated Tolerancing - Tolerances must be reasonable for manufacturing - Tolerances must ensure proper assembly and operation at maximum/minimum material conditions - mating parts should not have identical dimensions, they should be free running or press fits. - Smaller tolerances should be used for mating parts - a general part tolerance should be defined for the part, and smaller tolerances indicated for critical dimensions to reduce clutter 31.11.14 Discussions - discussions are expected to state all of the details. Sometines these might be obvious when the data is observed, but they must be stated. 31.11.15 Conclusions - This is the section to restate the key numbers that support the purpose of the lab. - clear, concise recommendations are needed. - You must not make statements such as ’this lab was a wonderful learning experience’ or ’all students should enjoy this lab’. 31.11.16 Recomendations - This is the section to restate the key numbers that support the purpose of the lab. - clear, concise recommendations are needed. - writing guide - 31.25 31.11.17 Appendices - Some material is too bulky for a report body, these are normally moved to an appendix. - when material is placed in an appendix, it must be summarized in the body of the report. - The report must briefly summarize (ussually a figure or equation or more) and then refer to the appendix. - it is expected that there will be some duplication between the appendix and the summary in the appendix. 31.11.18 Units - Put a apce between numbers an units - verify that units match the numerical results] - radians are one of the units that may not observe norma; conventions. 31.12 GENERAL WRITING ISSUES This list below indicates some of the general problems students encounter when writing technical reports and some strategies for fixing these problems. Basic Spelling - A document should always be checked for spelling. Considering that utilities for checking spelling are available in most software this is expected. Be aware that ’smell checkers’ will only point out mis-spelled words, not words used inappropriately, so you should also proofread. Technical Spelling - Many technical terms are not in the dictionaries used for checking spelling. You may add these terms to the dictionary, or visually verify. Be very careful when using the ’autoreplace’ options in software. Basic Grammar - ’Grammar checkers’ can be used to look for obvious problems. Using simple sentence structures will reduce problems and speed the writing process. Grammar checking software should not be used as a replacement for proofreading. Technical Grammar - Normally grammar checking will reject text written in passive voice, but the software can often be reconfigured. This software will also be confused by the interchangeable use of nouns and verbs common in technical english, such as input. Jargon and Acronyms - A number of technical terms and acronyms have been writing guide - 31.26 developed for efficiency and clarity. Examples include DMM, HTTP, kitted, parted, etc. All acronyms should be defined at their first use. Colloquialisms - Avoid informal language in technical reports. Use of informal language such as ’show me the beef’ will look unprofessional, confuse some readers and make material easily dated. 31.13 WRITERS BLOCK Everybody has suffered from writers block before. The obvious cause is not being sure what to write. This can be caused by a lack of understanding about the topic, or possibly how to express the point. Knowledge - In the case you are not sure what you are writing about you should spend time clarifying your knowledge before returning to writing. Reorganizing the material often helps to create clarity. Lack of knowledge - Current knowledge is based upon knowledge discovered and used before. This means that no matter how simple something apparently is, it has more layersw of knowledge than could be known by any one person. In the cases where you don’t know everything you should define what you do/don’t know. Skip that great opening paragraph - It is quite acceptable to start by writing central sections of a report. Many authors will write the abstract, introduction and conclusions last. It doesn’t need to sound impressive - Simply write what you mean to say. If you are having trouble saying it skip it and come back later, or leave it out. 31.14 TECHNICAL ENGLISH The table below indicates some good and poor choices for words and terms to use in technical papers. Table 2: Technical Words and Phrases Good Bad calculated found, measured read writing guide - 31.27 chose optimized parallax error human error Table 3: Plain English Good Bad was it became obvious that came in at representing Table 2: Technical Words and Phrases Good Bad writing guide - 31.28 Generally bad phrases, in order to be needed to be ----> is needed to be used so as to decided to be can be located found to have found through it was found that Table 3: Plain English Good Bad writing guide - 31.29 implementation of important precise exact perfect noted to be invoved allowed for it was found to be was looked thorough ---> reviewed along with - with also then decided on - selected found - measured, calculated 31.15 EVALUATION FORMS The forms on the following pages are examples of forms that may be used to evaluate written reports during the semester. The Lab Report Form - used to grade weekly lab reports Design Report Form - used to evaluate the final reports Peer Evaluation Form - this is used by students for team mates writing guide - 31.30 Technical: Communication: Overall: Student: Lab Number/Title: EGR 345 - Laboratory Report Evaluation technically accurate theory section is complete complete procedure and collected data data analysis theory is verified with data conclusions based on data adequate use of numbers clear and concise good use of figures, graphs and tables use of english professional style passive voice/past tense suitable use of formatting A * B = ______ / 100 A = _____ / 10 B = _____ / 10 writing guide - 31.31 31.16 PATENTS United States Patent 6,368,227 Olson April 9, 2002 Method of swinging on a swing Abstract Follows defined formats and requirements no yes Writing style is clear and concise and has a logical flow The paper is technically accurate and complete The writing is professional Overall writing quality and style Comments: Team: EGR 345 - Design Project Evaluation Sheet writing guide - 31.32 A method of swing on a swing is disclosed, in which a user positioned on a standard swing suspended by two chains from a substantially horizontal tree branch induces side to side motion by pulling alternately on one chain and then the other. Inventors: Olson; Steven (337 Otis Ave., St. Paul, MN 55104) Appl. No.: 715198 Filed: November 17, 2000 Current U.S. Class: 472/118 Intern'l Class: A63G 009/00 Field of Search: 472/118,119,120,121,122,123,125 References Cited [Referenced By] U.S. Patent Documents 242601Jun., 1881Clement472/118. 5413298May., 1995Perreault248/228. Primary Examiner: Nguyen; Kien T. Attorney, Agent or Firm: Olson; Peter Lowell Claims I claim: 1. A method of swinging on a swing, the method comprising the steps of: a) suspending a seat for supporting a user between only two chains that are hung from a tree branch; b) positioning a user on the seat so that the user is facing a direction perpendicular to the tree branch; c) having the user pull alternately on one chain to induce movement of the user and the swing toward one side, and then on the other chain to induce movement of the user and the swing toward the other side; and d) repeating step c) to create side-to-side swinging motion, relative to the user, that is parallel to the tree branch. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the method is practiced independently by the user to create the side-to-side motion from an initial dead stop. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises the step of: e) inducing a component of forward and back motion into the swinging motion, resulting in a swinging path that is generally shaped as an oval. writing guide - 31.33 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the magnitude of the component of forward and back motion is less than the component of side-to-side motion. Description TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a method of swinging on a swing. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A few basic types of swings have been around for generations. Perhaps the most common is one that includes a seat suspended between two ropes or chains that are hung from a tree branch or other substantially horizontal support. These swings are often found in side-by-side sets of two or three or more on, for example, a school playground. Young children often need help to climb onto a swing, and may need a push (sometimes even an "underdog" push) to begin swinging. Others may be able to begin the swinging movement on their own by pushing with their feet against the ground, and once moving may coordinate the motion of their legs and body in what may be called "pumping" to sustain the movement of the swing. When swinging in this manner, the user travels along a path as generally shown in the cross-section of FIG. 1. Another method of swinging on a swing involves twisting the seat around repeatedly so that the chains or ropes are wound in a double helix. When allowed to unwind, the swing spins quickly, which can be entertaining for the user. These methods of swinging on a swing, although of considerable interest to some people, can lose their appeal with age and experience. A new method of swinging on a swing would therefore represent an advance of great significance and value. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, a method is provided for swinging on a swing. The swing comprises a seat for supporting a user that is suspended between two chains that are hung from a substantially horizontal tree branch. The method comprises the steps of: a) positioning a user on the seat; and b) having the user pull alternately on one chain to induce movement of the user and the swing toward one side, and then on the other chain to induce movement of the user and the swing toward the other side, to create side-to-side motion. In another embodiment of the invention, the swinging method may be practiced independently by the user to create the side-to-side motion from an initial dead stop. These and other features of the invention are described in greater detail below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic top view of the swinging path of a swing used in accordance with conventional swinging methods. writing guide - 31.34 FIG. 2 is a front view of a swinging path of a swing used in accordance with one embodiment of the swinging method of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a schematic top view of a swinging path of a swing used in accordance with a second embodiment of the swinging method of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present inventor has created, through experimentation on a standard swing, a new and improved method of swinging. The swing is of the type described above, in which a seat is suspended between two chains that are hung from a substantially horizontal tree branch. As is apparent to those of ordinary skill in the area of swinging, the chains could be replaced with ropes, cables, or the like, or the tree branch could be replaced with another substantially horizontal support such as a metal bar or pole. The standard swing should be a single swing that is suspended sufficiently far away from obstructions to make the practice of the inventive swinging method completely safe. That is, the swing should be suspended a sufficient distance away from the trunk of the tree from which it suspended, and from any other swing, building, support, overhead wire, or other obstruction or threat to safety that may be present. The standard method of swinging on a swing is defined by oscillatory motion of the swing and the user along an axis that is substantially perpendicular to the axis of the tree branch from which the swing is suspended. This "forward and back" movement has been known for generations, and is illustrated in FIG. 1. In contrast to the conventional method of swinging, the present inventor has discovered that much greater satisfaction can be obtained by alternately pulling on one chain to move the swing and the user toward that side, and then pulling on the other chain to move the swing and the user toward that side. This side-to-side oscillatory motion of the swing and the user is thus along an axis that is substantially parallel to the axis of the tree branch from which the swing is suspended, and is illustrated in FIG. 2. This side to side swinging method has the added benefit that it can be continued for long periods of time simply by alternately pulling on one chain and then the other. The importance of sufficient clearance between the swing and any obstructions or threats to the user's safety is apparent. The present inventor has discovered certain other improvements in the art of swinging on a swing, either or both of which can be used in conjunction with the swinging method described immediately above. The first is that the inventive swinging method can be initiated from a dead stop without pushing, and without the user having to contact the ground. That is, the user can climb onto the swing, and begin from an initial dead stop to pull first on one chain, and then on the other chain, alternately until the user and the swing have begun to swing side-to-side in accordance with the inventive swinging method described herein. This enables even young users to swing independently and joyously, which is of great benefit to all. Another improvement on the swinging method described above is the induction into the side-toside swinging movement of a component of forward-and-back motion. That is, by skillful manipulation of the body, the present inventor has found it possible to add a relatively minor component writing guide - 31.35 of forward-and-back motion to the side-to-side swinging motion, resulting in a swinging path that is generally shaped like an oval, as is shown in FIG. 3. It is preferred that the magnitude of the forward- and back motion (shown in FIG. 3 as being along the Y axis) be less than the magnitude of the side-to side motion (shown in FIG. 3 as being along the X axis), so that the latter predominates. In this manner, the motion can be more easily continued simply by alternately pulling on one chain and then the other in the manner described. Lastly, it should be noted that because pulling alternately on one chain and then the other resembles in some measure the movements one would use to swing from vines in a dense jungle forest, the swinging method of the present invention may be referred to by the present inventor and his sister as "Tarzan" swinging. The user may even choose to produce a Tarzan-type yell while swinging in the manner described, which more accurately replicates swinging on vines in a dense jungle forest. Actual jungle forestry is not required. Licenses are available from the inventor upon request.